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2024-09-10

Harrier II Plus: Vertical Might, Lethal Bite

The Harrier II Plus (AV-8B) is a versatile vertical or short-take-off-and-landing (VSTOL) fighter and attack aircraft that has been a cornerstone of the U.S. Marine Corps, Spanish Navy, and Italian Navy for decades. Its unique ability to take off and land vertically, similar to a helicopter, has made it indispensable for operations in confined spaces like ship decks and jungle clearings.

Its roots trace back to the 1970s, when its initial design was conceived and developed. The aircraft has undergone numerous upgrades over the years, incorporating state-of-the-art avionics, weapons systems, and engines. The continuous modernisation has ensured its relevance and effectiveness in the evolving battlefield.

The Harrier II Plus’s VSTOL capabilities have expanded the operational reach and flexibility of the U.S. Marine Corps and other military forces, allowing them to operate from a wider range of locations.

Tactical Edge

The aircraft is tasked with conducting close air support using both conventional and specialised weapons, as well as performing deep air support, including armed reconnaissance and air interdiction. It is capable of offensive and defensive antiair warfare, which encompasses combat air patrols, armed escort missions, and offensive actions against enemy ground-to-air defences.

It is designed to operate and deliver ordnance at night and under instrument flight conditions, deploy for extended operations with aerial refuelling, and operate from carriers, other suitable seagoing platforms, advanced bases, expeditionary airfields, and remote tactical landing sites.

By 1998, it remained the only fixed-wing VSTOL aircraft in the free world, renowned for its vertical takeoff capability, manoeuvrability, and ability to evade enemy fire. The AV-8B Harrier II Plus, with enhanced engines, radar, and avionics, improved operational efficiency in darkness and adverse weather.

Evolving Combat Power

The AV-8B Harrier II, based on the 1957 British-designed Hawker-Siddley Kestrel, was developed by McDonnell Douglas, British Aerospace, and Rolls-Royce. Production began in 1981, resulting in over 340 units. Compared to the earlier AV-8As, the Harrier II featured greater fuel capacity, higher lift, and improved cruise characteristics.

The AV-8B Harrier II Plus, introduced in 1992, includes a more powerful engine and advanced radar and avionics, enabling efficient operations in darkness and adverse weather.

Production of new Harriers ended in 1997, with the final remanufactured Harrier II Plus delivered in 2003. In 2007, Boeing secured a US$258.5 million contract to support the AV-8B Harriers for the U.S. Marine Corps, Italy, and Spain.

Globally, 824 Harrier variants were produced, with the U.S., Italy, Spain, and the UK as primary operators.

In 2014, the U.S. Marine Corps announced plans to retire the AV-8B fleet, replacing it with the F-35B Lightning II by 2028, marking the transition to next-generation tactical aviation.

Advanced Cockpit Systems

Its cockpit is designed for comprehensive day and night operability, providing pilots with advanced tools for effective mission execution. It features fully integrated head-up and head-down displays that deliver critical flight and combat information directly into the pilot’s field of vision.

A digital moving map enhances situational awareness by providing real-time navigation data, while the Inertial Navigation System ensures precise positioning and orientation, even in challenging environments.

Additionally, the Hands-On Throttle and Stick (HOTAS) system allows pilots to manage key flight controls and weapons systems without removing their hands from the throttle and stick, ensuring seamless operation during high-stress combat situations.

Diverse Weaponry Array

The Harrier II Plus can deploy a diverse array of weapon systems, including Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missiles (AMRAAM) and Sparrow missiles, air-to-surface AGM-65 Maverick missiles, anti-ship Harpoon and Sea Eagle missiles, a 25mm cannon, and a variety of bombs and rockets.

The AIM-120A AMRAAM from Raytheon Missile Systems is an all-weather, fire-and-forget air-to-air missile, equipped with an active radar seeker and a high-explosive warhead. The range is more than 50 miles, and the speed of the missile is 1.2km a second.

The AGM-65 Maverick is an air-to-surface tactical missile designed for close air support, interdiction, and defence suppression. It is effective against a wide range of tactical targets, including armour, air defences, ships, ground transportation, and fuel storage facilities. The Maverick AGM-65 anti-tank missile is installed on the Italian Harrier II Plus.

The AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range air-to-air missile, a predecessor to the Raytheon AIM-120 AMRAAM, is held in the arms inventories of many countries, including the user countries of the Harrier II Plus aircraft. The aircraft is capable of deploying the Sea Eagle anti-ship missile from MBDA, which is a fire-and-forget sea-skimming missile also carried on the Sea Harrier, and the air-launch version of Harpoon AGM-84 surface strike missile from Boeing.

USMC Harriers are being fitted with the 1,000lb Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM).

The AV-8B aircraft are equipped with the Northrop Grumman Litening II targeting and reconnaissance pod, which includes a CCD TV camera for video reconnaissance, forward-looking infrared (FLIR) for thermal imaging, and laser spot trackers/rangefinders for precise targeting.

The system is set to be upgraded to the latest generation Litening AT (Advanced Targeting) pod, enhancing targeting capabilities with advanced sensors and improved tracking technology.

The upgrade to Litening Advanced Targeting Pod offers pointedly increased range and resolution, enhanced air-to-air modes and new pilot workload reduction features.

The three-aperture configuration allows for larger colour daylight, mid-wave Infrared (IR), short-wave IR and long-wave IR sensors. With Large Aperture, Litening covers a wider portion of the spectrum than ever before, leaving nowhere to hide.

Litening Large Aperture offers a 50 per cent increase in resolution and an operationally significant increase in range. Advanced video processing algorithms and a more powerful graphics processing unit enhance image clarity to enable quicker decision making.

Superior Sensors

The Harrier II Plus is equipped with the Raytheon APG-65 digital radar to provide day and night and adverse weather capability.

The APG-65 is a jam-resistant, all-weather detection and tracking radar. In the air-to-air role, it operates in search, track and combat modes. Long-range interception missions use the radar’s long-range detection capability and, for the close-in air defence role, the radar utilises rapid acquisition modes for the aircraft’s 25mm cannon and heat-seeking missiles.

In the air-to-surface role, the radar provides high-resolution, long-range surface mapping and detection, and tracking of land-based and sea-based targets. It can locate small, fast patrol boats in high sea states and detect large naval ships at long range.

The APG-65’s flexibility stems from programmable digital computers that enhance its adaptability. The radar includes a built-in test system for end-to-end preflight checkout and continuous monitoring. It features look-down/shoot-down capability, enabling effective targeting during air-to-air engagements.

It can track up to 10 targets simultaneously and display eight targets. For air-to-surface operations, it offers ground mapping modes and features that support the use of guided precision munitions.

It is operational in the F/A-18 Hornet worldwide.

Avionics Suite

The avionics suite of the Harrier II Plus incorporates advanced technologies similar to those found in the U.S. Marine Corps’ Night Attack AV-8B.

It includes a FLIR sensor, which is crucial for detecting and identifying targets in low-visibility conditions such as darkness or adverse weather.

The FLIR sensor’s image is projected onto the wide-field-of-view head-up display (HUD) and the multi-purpose head-down displays. This setup allows pilots to receive real-time, high-resolution thermal imagery, enhancing their situational awareness during night-time operations.

The system is also equipped with night-vision goggles (NVG) and features an NVG-compatible cockpit, further improving the pilot’s ability to operate effectively in dark environments.

This combination of advanced sensors and display technologies ensures that the aircraft maintains high operational effectiveness under reduced visibility conditions.

Rolls-Royce Pegasus Engine

The Pegasus engine 11-61 (F402-RR-408) from Rolls-Royce delivers a high thrust-to-weight ratio and retains its performance in hot and high-altitude conditions.

The aircraft features significant aerodynamic elements, including large Leading-Edge Root Extensions, under-fuselage Lift-Improvement Devices, drooping ailerons, and slotted flaps. These components enhance vectored engine thrust and overall aerodynamic performance.

Thrust Vectoring Flight Control enables effective transition between hover and forward speeds. This helps the aircraft to be principally efficient at low speeds when aerodynamic surfaces are ineffective.

Thrust vectoring or thrust vector control (TVC) capability allows the aircraft to manipulate the direction of thrust to control the altitude or angular velocity of the aircraft. Rather than solely relying on the aircraft’s control surfaces (ailerons, elevators, and rudder), some directional control is achieved through the TVC.

The AV-8B is capable of thrust vectoring through its engines, where the outer nozzle swivels to manipulate direction. The capability vastly improves the aircraft’s agility by providing an additional control mechanism, particularly during high-intensity combat missions.

Altitude Climb Capability

The Harrier II Plus can climb at a rate of 14,700ft per minute. Its maximum speed is 1,083km per hour. The normal and ferry ranges of the aircraft are 2,574km and 3,300km, respectively.

The aircraft’s combat radius is 556km. It weighs around 6,743kg and its maximum take-off weight is 14,514kg.

Technological Upgrades

Between 2009 and 2021, several contractors secured key contracts related to the AV-8B Harrier aircraft. GE Aviation won a US$16 million contract from the U.S. Navy in 2009 to develop radar display computers for the aircraft, handling control and display functions for the crew.

In 2011, BAE Systems was awarded US$19.7 million to extend the Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System to the Harrier. Stauder Technologies received a five-year contract in 2014 to deliver 170 Airborne Hyde Terminals.

ViaSat was contracted by Boeing in 2017 to provide KOR-24A Small Tactical Terminals, enhancing the aircraft’s communication capabilities.

In 2020, Vertex Aerospace secured a US$123 million contract for aircraft maintenance and logistics, later subcontracting BAE Systems in 2021 to implement predictive maintenance and smart stock optimisation tools. General Dynamics Mission Systems contributed to software upgrades for the Harrier’s mission system computer under the Future Airborne Capability Environment (FACE) initiative, beginning in 2013 and delivering the third software release in 2015.

The initiative aims to reduce lifecycle costs, combat software obsolescence, and promote interoperability across U.S. Department of Defence platforms, with General Dynamics playing a central role in enhancing the Harrier’s mission capabilities.

The End of AV-8B Harrier II Era

The newest version of the Harrier is the AV-8B II Plus, which made its first flight on September 22, 1992. Equipped with the same radar used on the F/A-18C Hornet, a Boeing, British Aerospace and Rolls-Royce team produces the plane, which was developed through a three-nation agreement between the U.S., Spain and Italy.

Through a remanufacturing program, earlier versions of the AV-8B are converted into the Harrier II Plus at a much lower cost than an all-new aircraft. The U.S. Marine Corps received its first Harrier II Plus in 1993 and its first remanufactured aircraft in 1996. Final assembly of the Harrier II Plus is done at the Boeing plant in St. Louis. To date, 51 new and 68 remanufactured AV-8B Harrier II Plus aircraft have been delivered.

Reference Text/Photo: www.boeing.com, www.af.mil

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